The Effect of the Cyprus Problem on Gender Equality
This article is a short summary of my bachelor's dissertation.
The political, economic and social effects of the division of Cyprus and the ongoing Cyprus problem have long been debated and discussed, whether in academics, politics or social life. However, the effect of the Cyprus problem on gender equality and women’s rights have not been adequately talked about.
Even though most Cypriots do not realise that the Cyprus problem and gender inequality are linked, the division of the island and the subsequent failure to come to a peace agreement have held back gender equality from progressing in both Cypriot communities.
Ethnic nationalism has strengthened gender roles in society
Ethnic nationalism, and the violent conflicts which led to a war, strengthened hegemonic masculinity and violence against women at the time, which all contributed to increasing sexist social thought.
Hegemonic masculinity endorses specific ideals of masculinity, which are accepted as the socially correct and normal way of being a man. This empowers men to have a dominant position in society in relation to women. Hegemonic masculinity is also a significant core value in both nationalism and patriarchy.
The main actors in nationalism are men, who are supposed to be the brave soldiers fighting for their nation’s freedom and honour, and protecting their women, whereas women have secondary, passive roles. These gender roles are enforced during conflicts caused by ethnic nationalism. Men, who were soldiers in Cyprus during the violent periods, were socially pressured and politically forced to act dominant, nationalist, aggressive, authoritative, strong and violent.
Rape and sexual violence were used as a tool to assert power during the war
During the conflicts of the 1960s and 70s, as well as the war in 1974 between the two communities, soldiers used rape and sexual violence against women as a tool of asserting power and dominance over the other community.
The stories of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot women, who were raped throughout fifty years of tensions, conflicts and war, have barely been talked about in either community. For example, according to the Cyprus Radio Television Authority, which is the regulatory body for the Greek Cypriot broadcasting sector, it is illegal to talk about the stories of women who were raped.
The only reason the stories of Greek Cypriot women who were raped have partially come to light is the report prepared by the European Court of Human Rights in 1976 for the lawsuits that Greek Cypriot authorities filed against Turkey. The lawsuits asserted that Turkish soldiers committed crimes of rape. The report stated that rape incidents took place on a large scale, women were collectively forced into prostitution for the soldiers in some places, and the authorities did not take enough precautions to prevent rapes or punitive actions after the rapes.
The fact that the wartime sexual violence has remained unpunished demonstrates that the domination of hegemonic masculinity in Cyprus continues today. Moreover, violence against women still continues today as more than one in every three women in Cyprus have reported that they experience physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence in surveys.[1]
The significant presence of the military in Cyprus boosts hegemonic masculinity
Continuing significant presence and important role of the military in both parts of Cyprus support hegemonic masculinity that has been intensified by the war. Both the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus have mandatory conscription for men, even though only six out of the rest of the 28 EU member states have mandatory military service and Greece and Turkey have conscription on better conditions and shorter serving times than the Cypriot states.
In Northern Cyprus, alternative service to military service on the grounds of conscientious objection is not available, which shows how not wanting to be violent and preferring to be peaceful and a pacifist is not considered as an acceptable choice for men by the society. Men who have done military service but refuse to join a mobilisation training have been sent to jail for a week through the military court.
The fact that Cyprus remains divided without a peace agreement causes both Cypriot communities to be concerned about security, and therefore have mobilisation preparation policies which do not exist even in Greece or Turkey.
The prominent presence of the military in Cyprus is not only formed by the mandatory military service, but also by the British and Turkish military bases in Cyprus. The Turkish military bases exist directly because of the Cyprus problem, as a result of the war in 1974. The northern part of the island has been called “one of the most highly militarised areas in the world in terms of the ratio between numbers of troops and civilian population”[2] by Boutros Boutros-Ghali in 1994, who was the UN Secretary-General at the time, in a UN report.
Cypriot women are not adequately represented in politics
As they had to deal with war and the consequences of war, Cypriot women did not partake in any feminist movements in the late 20th century, while this was the time when the most important feminist movements were taking place in the rest of Europe.
Women’s participation and representation in politics, including in the peace negotiations, have been low in both communities. Even in 2019, in the Republic of Cyprus, there were 10 women parliamentarians out of 56 and in Northern Cyprus, there were 9 out of 50. Not only are Cypriot women underrepresented in politics, but they also tend to not hold high positions. There has never been a female president in either Cypriot states and women rarely run in presidential elections.
The fact that women’s perspective is barely present in Cypriot politics and peace negotiations means that their different social and political experiences and interests are not considered adequately. Therefore, policies promoting gender equality are less likely to be implemented.
Gender issues are not featured enough in politics
The Cyprus problem still continues to dominate Cypriot politics almost 50 years after the war, which diverts attention, efforts and actions away from gender issues. The political focus on the Cyprus problem in the north also includes the political and economic problems faced due to political, legal and economic isolation.
Cypriot politics and politicians in both parts of the island tend to focus on political problems that are perceived to be more significant than gender and LGBTQI+ issues. People who focus on these issues are also often marginalised.
One example of a policy that shows how women’s issues have been mostly ignored is the policy on abortion. Abortion has only been fully legal since 2018 in the Republic of Cyprus, whereas it has been legal since 1986 in Greece. In Northern Cyprus, abortion is still not fully legalised as it is only legal till the 10th week, there are no special regulations for cases of incest and rape, and both the woman and her husband must give consent for an abortion if the woman is married.
While male same-sex sexual activity was illegal until 2014 in Northern Cyprus and until 1998 in the Republic of Cyprus, it has been legal in Turkey since 1858 and in Greece since 1951. Although same-sex civil unions have been recognised since 2015 in the Republic of Cyprus, same-sex marriage is not possible in either of the Cypriot states. In both Cypriot states, there is no right to change legal gender, whereas people have had the right to change legal gender in Turkey since 1988 and since 2010 in Greece.
The lack of policies to support LGBTQI+ people in Cyprus demonstrates how hegemonic masculinity still prevails in both communities, which imposes traditional notions of gender roles and specific ideals of masculinity and femininity in society.
Laws protecting women's rights are relatively difficult to implement in Northern Cyprus since it is an unrecognised state
As a result of the division, Northern Cyprus has ended up as an internationally unrecognised, de-facto state, which has held it back from progressing socially, economically and politically, and therefore resulted in slower gender equality progression. Northern Cyprus is not part of the global political and legal sphere and therefore is exempt from the responsibilities of implementing the international human and women’s rights framework. This means that the implementation of policies and laws that promote gender equality and ensure gender and sexual rights have been inadequate.
An example that shows how gender equality in Northern Cyprus is affected by being unrecognised as a state is the problem of sex trafficking. According to the 2020 Trafficking in Persons Report on Cyprus, “Turkish Cypriot authorities do not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and are not making significant efforts to do so.”[3] Although illegal, “commercial sex, including forced prostitution, commonly occurred in nightclubs”[4] that operate as strip clubs and there are “approximately 42 night clubs or similar entertainment places active in the northern part of Cyprus”[5] that operate as strip clubs. “If the 'TRNC' [the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus] were to be assigned a formal ranking in this report, it would be Tier 3”[6] which means that “the area administered by Turkish Cypriots continues to be a zone of impunity for human trafficking.”[7] This is another example, which shows that violence against women still continues significantly in Cyprus today.
References
[1] The Centre For Migration, Identity and Rights Studies. (2020).
[2] United Nations. Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus S/1994/680. (1994).
[3] U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report: Cyprus. (2020). Available at: https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-trafficking-in-persons-report-2/cyprus/
[4] ibid.
[5] Pre-Sessional Working Group for the 70th session of the CEDAW Committee on Cyprus. Gender Equality and Anti-discrimination against Women – List of Issues, The Secretariat of the Cyprus Dialogue Forum, p. 57. (2018).
[6] U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report: Cyprus. (2020).
[7] ibid.